Abkhaz language

Abkhaz is generally viewed as having three major dialects:[43]

• Abzhywa, spoken in the Caucasus, and named after the historical area of Abzhywa (Абжьыуа), sometimes referred to as Abzhui, the Russified form of the name (Abzhuiski dialekt, derived from the Russian form of the name for the area, Абжуа).
• Bzyb or Bzyp, spoken in the Caucasus and in Turkey, and named after the Bzyb (Abkhazian: Бзыԥ) area.
• Sadz, nowadays spoken only in Turkey, formerly also spoken between the rivers Bzyp and Khosta.

The literary language is based on the Abzhywa dialect.[44]

Below is a classification of Abkhaz dialects according to Chirikba (1996):[45]^: xv

• Common Abkhaz (Proto-Abkhaz)
  • North Abkhaz
    • Tapanta
  • Ashkharywa
  • South Abkhaz
    • Southwestern
      • Sadz
    • Southeastern
      • Ahchypsy, Bzyp
      • Tsabal, Abzhywa

In some form or the other, all dialects are richer in phonemes than the standard Abzhywa dialect.[46] The only dialects spoken in Abkhazia are Abzhywa and Bzyp. Northern dialects which are the basis for literary Abaza are spoken in Karachay-Cherkessia, while the other dialects such as Sadz are spoken in Turkey due to Russian invasions in the 19th century.[47][48][49] While most differences are phonetic, differences in the lexicon are present, although mostly due to exterior contact.[50] Bzyp contains the most preserved lexicon, with few borrowings. Abzhywa has adopted many loans from Kartvelian, specially Megrelian; Sadz on the other hand has more words from Circassian. Northern dialects in general have more loanwords from Persian, Arabic, Turkish and Circassian.

Abkhaz has a very large number of consonants (58 in the literary dialect), with three-way voiced/voiceless/ejective and palatalized/labialized/plain distinctions. By contrast, the language has only two phonemically distinct vowels, which have several allophones depending on the palatal and/or labial quality of adjacent consonants.

Labialised alveolo-palatal fricatives (highlighted in green in the table below) are found in the Bzyp and Sadz dialects of Abkhaz, but not in Abzhywa. Plain alveolo-palatal consonants and the pharyngealised and labialised-pharyngealised uvular fricatives (highlighed in blue) are unique to the Bzyp dialect.

The consonants highlighted in red, are the 4 kinds of labialisation described by Chirikba.[51]

The nature of the vowels of Abkhaz are not clear. Some linguists,[52][53][54] characterise the vowel system as a 2 degree vertical vowel system; with the two vowels being distinguished by height, 'ә' being the high/close vowel, and 'а' being the low/open. This system would very closely resemble the one found in Adyghe. The quality of 'ә' in this case, is usually represented as [ɨ] if the vowel is in a stressed position, and being unaffected by its neighbouring consonants.

Other linguists[55][56] however, mainly Russian ones, describe the vowels differently. They describe the sound of 'ә' being completely different from [ɨ], and by their descriptions being closer to [ə]. The 'а' is described as being particularly back, likely [ɑ].

Abkhaz morphology features a highly complex verb system that could be called a “sentence in miniature.”[61] Chirikba (2003) describes Abkhaz as a “verbocentric” language wherein verbs occupy the “central part of the morphology.”[62] However, despite its complexity, Abkhaz verbal morphology is highly regular.[63]

Abkhaz, being an ergative language, makes a strong distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs, as well as dynamic and stative.

Stative verbs describe states of being, roughly analogous to copular phrases in English, as in дхәыҷуп (d-x˚əčә́-wə-p - “she is a child”).[64] Dynamic verbs express direct actions, functioning more closely to standard English verbs. Dynamic verbs possess the full range of aspect, mood and tense forms, in contrast to statives, which do not.[64]

Some verbs, called inversives, combine certain features of both stative and dynamic verbs.[64]

Another important verbal distinction in Abkhaz is finite versus non-finite, referring to the duration of the action. Finite verbs usually contain enough information to form a complete sentence, whereas non-finite verbs typically form dependent clauses.[64]

Verb stems can be derived in a number of ways, including compounding, affixation, reduplication or conversion from another part of speech.[65]

Roughly equivalent to the infinitive,[61] or to a so-called “verbal noun,”[66] the Masdar form of the verb resembles the English gerund. It is formed by the addition of a specific suffix to a bare verb stem, -ра (-ra) for a dynamic verb and -заара (-zaara) for a stative.[67]

Various prefixes can be added to the Masdar to form entire dependent clauses, as in[61]

However, the fully conjugated personal Abkhaz verb forms are “templatic,” with each grammatical distinction occupying a specific “slot” or “position” within the broader verb template.[68] Verbs are thus formed by the addition of various affixes to the verb stem; these affixes express such distinctions as transitivity, person and stative/dynamic quality, occupying rigid positions within the overall verb structure.[61] There is a high degree of agreement between verbs and other parts of speech.[61] Overall, the Abkhaz verb is constructed as follows:

[First Position]+[Second Position]+[Third Position]+[Indirect Object]+[Reflexive]+[Free Preverb]+[Stem Preverb]+[Agent]+[Negation]+[Causative]+STEM+[Extension]+[Number]+[Aspect]+[Tense]+[Negation]+[Ending Suffixes][69]

Not all of these elements will necessarily co-occur in every verb. The individual parts of verb morphology are addressed below.

First Position

The first prefixing element of the verb complex expresses either the subject of an intransitive verb in the absolutive construction, or the direct object of a transitive verb in an ergative construction. The following table illustrates the various agreement markers which can occupy the first position.[70] These prefixes can either be in their long forms, containing the letters inside the parenthesis, or in the short forms that don't contain them. The rules for using them are the following:[71]

1. If the prefix is proceeded by a consonant cluster, the long form shall be used.
2. If the stress falls on the prefix, the long form shall be used
3. If the prefix is not proceeded by a consonant cluster, the short form shall be used.
4. If the stress doesn't fall on the prefix, the short form shall be used.

It is also possible for the possessive prefix ҽы́- (čə́-) in a reflexive construction or the relative prefix иы́- (jә́-) in a non-finite construction to occupy this position.[72]

Example of an absolutive construction with the intransitive subject in the first slot highlighted[72]

Example of an ergative construction with the direct object in the first slot highlighted[72]

Example of a reflexive construction with the possessive prefix in the first slot[72]

Second Position

The second position is occupied by the indirect object or by the prefix аи- (aj-) for reciprocal pronouns equivalent to “each other” or “one another” in English.[72]

Third Position

This position accommodates a number of prefixes that express causative information.[72]

Second Indirect Object

Any indirect object occurring after the one in the second position occupies this position instead; a possessive prefix of stative verbs can also be placed here.[72]

Reflexive

Where a possessive prefix exists in the first position, the reflexive prefix is placed here.[72]

Free Preverb

This position is occupied by preverbal elements which are not an explicit part of the verb stem.[72]

Stem Preverb

Preverbal elements that are explicitly attached to the verb stem take this position.[72]

Agent

The agreement marker corresponding to the agent (the subject of a transitive verb) takes this position.[72]

Negation (Dynamic)

The negation prefix m- occupies this position in a dynamic verb construction.[72]

Causative

The causative prefix r- takes the final position before the verb stem.[72]

Extension

The first of the suffixing elements expresses adverbial information relating to “inside” (-la) or “outside” (-aa).[73]

Number The suffix -kºá pluralizes a stative verb.[73]

Aspect

Several aspect markers occupy this position as suffixes.[74]

Tense

Several tense markers occupy this position, dependent upon whether the verb in question is stative or dynamic. Dynamic verbs have a richly developed tense paradigm incorporating tense and aspect distinctions. The table below illustrates these various dynamic tense forms using the verb агара (agara – “to take”).[75]

Stative verbs, by contrast, lack this rich tense system, as illustrated below using the verb а́цәара (ácºara - “to be sleeping”).[76]

Negation (Stative)

The negation prefix m- occupies this position in a stative verb construction.[73]

Ending Suffixes

The final position in the verb complex can accommodate any one of several mixed purpose markers.[73]

The imperative takes a few possible forms, depending upon the type of verb. Dynamic verbs form the imperative by the addition of agreement suffixes to a bare verb stem; intransitives include the subject and indirect object makers, whereas transitives include the direct object and absolutive. Thus[77]

Stative verbs form the imperative simply by adding the durative suffix -z to the verb stem. Thus[77]

Abkhaz lacks diathetic opposition, and as such there is no true passive voice distinction.[78]

Like verbs, Abkhaz nouns are formed by the addition of various prefixes and suffixes to a static noun stem.[62] Noun stems can be derived according to several different processes, including compounding, reduplication, or the addition of a derivational affix.[79]

The affixes mark number, definiteness and possession, as well as some case-like elements.[62] Taken as a whole, the entire morphological structure of the Abkhaz noun is as follows:

[Definite Article]+[Inflectional Prefix]+[Quantity]+STEM+[Inflectional Suffix]+[Indefinite Article]+[Clitic][80]

As with verbs, not all of these elements can occur at the same time. The individual parts of noun morphology are addressed below.

Article Affixes

There is a range of definiteness in Abkhaz. Those articles adhering to definite/generic categories appear as prefixes in the broader noun structure, whereas the indefinite is suffixed.[81]

The absence of either article affix implies a zero reference implying universal quantifiers, or to express the total lack of a referent.

Уаҩы дсымбеит

wajºә́ dsəmbáøjt

“I saw nobody.”[82]

Definite and indefinite affixes may appear together in the same noun, implying that the referents are meant as a group or body.

аҽқәа́к

ačkºák

“one of the horses.”[82]

There are some semantic differences in article usage between the different dialects of Abkhaz.[82]

Inflectional Prefixes

Pronominal prefixes in Abkhaz

These are possessive prefixes which express grammatical person and noun class.[80] They come in two forms, the full and short ones. The full ones contain the vowels inside the parenthesis, whereas the short ones don't.

Quantifying Prefixes

These few prefixes add numeric information to the noun complex. Often, this takes the form of a numeral.[80]

рыхҩы-ԥацәа

rəxjºә́-pacºa

“their three (HC) sons”

Inflectional Suffixes These suffixes convey either plural number or case-like adverbial information. Plural markers are addressed further below; the other possible inflectional suffixes are the following:[80]

• The third-person singular non-human possessive marker, attached to a locative or directional postposition
• Locative -ҿы́ (-č’ә́) or directional -ҳы́ (-x’ә́) postpositions
• Instrumental suffix -ла (-la)
• Adverbial suffix -с (-s), as in: иашьас (jaš’ás - “as a brother”)[83]
• Comparative suffix -ҵас (-c’as), as in: ҩнҵа́с (jºənc’ás - “like a house”)[80]
• Privative suffix -да (-da), as in: ҩны́да (jºnә́da - “without a house”)[80]
• Various coordinating suffixes

Inflectional suffixes can follow each other sequentially.

аҷкәы́нцәеи аҭы́ԥҳацәеи

áč’k’ºəncºaj atә́phacºaj

“boys and girls”[80]

Plural Suffixes

Abkhaz distinguishes singular and plural; the singular is unmarked, whereas the plural is indicated by noun class-dependent suffixes.[83] There are several pluralizing suffixes, but the two most commonly used refer generally to the human and non-human noun classes.[83] There are instances where explicitly human nouns take non-human plural markers.[84]

There are also several plural endings that are of much narrower use.[83]

Clitic

The clitic -гьы (-g’ə) functions as an in-built coordinating conjunction.[80]

сангьы сабгьы

sáng’ə sábg’ə

“my mother and my father”

Noun Class

Nouns in Abkhaz are classified broadly according to a human/non-human paradigm, with the human class itself further subdivided into masculine and feminine gender.[82] Gender is a fairly weak concept in Abkhaz grammar, and gender distinctions undergo a fair degree of neutralization in several contexts, including personal pronouns, verb agreement and possession marking.[83] This class and gender system distinguishes Abkhaz from the other Northwest Caucasian languages.[83]

Vocative Affixes

Although there is no special vocative declension, the prefix уа- (wa-), when attached to a noun stem, can express a vocative form.

Уанцәа́!

wancºá

“Oh Lord!”[85]

Similarly, the suffix -a can be added to a proper noun ending in a consonant to communicate respect and endearment.

Зура́ба

zurába

“Dear Zurab” (given name)[85]

Abkhaz is a pro-drop language. Pronouns are not inflected, and verbal agreement is generally sufficient to indicate grammatical person.[86]

It is common in everyday speech to use a short version of the pronoun which omits the suffix -рá (-rá), although this is done less frequently with third-person pronouns.

In addition to noun-marking, possession can be indicated by adding the suffix -тәы́ (-t’˚ә́) to the short version of a personal pronoun. Thus:

стәы́ (st’˚ә́ - “mine”)

лтәы́ (lt’˚ә́ - “hers”)[87]

Intensive pronouns are derived from short-form personal pronouns combined with the suffix -хаҭá (-xatá). These have a roughly reflexive meaning.

сарá (sará - “I”)

схаҭá (sxatá - “I myself”)[87]

Morphologically, adjectives are very similar to nouns, differing only in their syntactic function.[88] Similarly to nouns, adjective stems can be derived by compounding, reduplication and affixation.[89] When used attributively, adjectives follow the noun that they modify. Predicative adjectives, or those derived by suffixation, precede the noun.[88] Adjectives are formed according to the following paradigm:

[Definite Article]+[Inflectional Prefix]+STEM+[Inflectional Suffix]+[Indefinite Article]+[Adverbial Suffix][88]

Inflectional Prefix

The possessive prefix r- is used to show possessive agreement.[90]

рҭоурыхтә ҭагылазаашьа

rtawrә́xt’º tagә́lazaaš’a

“their historical situation”

Adjective Suffixes

These suffixes are added to the adjective stem to show agreement with the noun being modified.[90]

The comparative form of an adjective is formed using the comparative particle аиҳá (ajhá - “more”), which precedes the adjective. The superlative form is indicated by the intensifier suffix -ӡа.[90] Thus:

аиҳа ибзиоу аҩны

ajhá jəbzә́jaw ajºnә́ (“a better house”)

иҟаԥшӡа

jəq’apšʒá (“reddest”)

The Latin alphabet in Abkhaz is currently not in Unicode. Its inclusion was proposed in 2011. See also:

Abkhazian: Дарбанзаалак ауаҩы дшоуп ихы дақәиҭны. Ауаа зегь зинлеи патулеи еиҟароуп. Урҭ ирымоуп ахшыҩи аламыси, дара дарагь аешьеи аешьеи реиԥш еизыҟазароуп.[92]

Darbanzaalak auaɥy dshoup ihy daqwithny. Auaa zegj zinlei patulei eiqaroup. Urth irymoup ahshyɥi alamysi, dara daragj aesjei aesjei reiphsh eizyqazaroup.

Darbanzaalak auaòy dšoup ihy dak̦a̋ițny. Auaa zegʹ zinlei patulei eik̄aroup. Urț irymoup ahšyòi alamysi, dara daragʹ aešʹei aešʹei reip̀š eizyk̄azaroup.

"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood."

/darbanza:lakʼ awaɥɨ tʂawpʼ jiχɨ dakʷʰitʰnɨ ǁ awaː zagʲ zjinlaj pʼatʼwɨlaj ajqʼarawpʼ ǁ wartʰ jirɨmawpʼ aχʂɨɥij alamɨsij ǀ dara daragʲ ajaʃaj rajpʰʂ ajzɨqʼazarawpʼ/