Decolonization of Asia

The decolonization of Asia was the gradual growth of independence movements in Asia, leading ultimately to the retreat of foreign powers and the creation of a number of nation-states in the region.

Background
Main article: Western imperialism in Asia

The decline of Spain and Portugal in the 17th century paved the way for other European powers, namely the Netherlands, France and England. Portugal would lose influence in all but three of its colonies, Portuguese India, Macau and Timor.

By the end of the 17th century, the Dutch had taken over much of the old Portuguese colonies, and had established a strong presence in present-day Indonesia, with colonies in Aceh, Bantam, Makassar and Jakarta. The Dutch also had trade links with Siam, Japan, China and Bengal.

The British had competed with Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch for their interests in Asia since the early 17th century and by the mid-19th century held much of India (via the British East India Company), as well as Burma, Ceylon, Malaya and Singapore. After The Indian Rebellion of 1857, Queen Victoria was declared Empress of India, thus solidifying the British rule on the subcontinent. The last British acquisition in Asia was the New Territories of Hong Kong, which was leased from the Qing emperor in 1897, expanding the British colony originally ceded in the Treaty of Nanking in 1842.

The French had little success in India following defeats against the British in the 17th century, though they held onto possessions on the east coast of India (such as Pondicherry and Mahar) until decolonization. The French established their most lucrative and substantial colony in Indochina from 1862, eventually occupying the present-day areas of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia by 1887.

Japan's first colony was the island of Taiwan, occupied in 1874 and officially ceded by the Qing emperor in 1894. Japan continued its early imperialism with the annexation of Korea in 1910.

The United States entered the region in 1898 during the Spanish–American War, taking the Philippines as its sole colony through a mock battle in the capital and the purchase of the Philippines from Spain after the declaration of independence and the First Philippine Republic.

Asian colonies from the 17th century to the end of the Second World War

The following list shows the colonial powers following the end of World War II in 1945, their colonial or administrative possessions and date of decolonization.[1]

Asia
Country Date of acquisition of sovereignty Acquisition of sovereignty
 Afghanistan 1919 Treaty of Rawalpindi ends British control of foreign policy
 Bahrain 15 August 1971 End of treaties with the United Kingdom
 Bangladesh 26 March 1971 Independence from Pakistan declared
 Bhutan 1885 Ugyen Wangchuck ends period of civil war and unites Bhutan
 Brunei 1 January 1984 Brunei regains its independence after an agreement with the British on 4 January 1979
 Cambodia 9 September 1953 France grants Cambodia independence
26 September 1989 Becomes free from Vietnamese occupation; it gets back its name instead of the People's Republic of Kampuchea
/ China[Asia 1] 221 BC In 221 BC, Qin Shi Huang conquered the various warring states and created for himself the title of Huangdi or "emperor" of the Qin, marking the beginning of imperial China.
 India 15 August 1947 Independence from the British Empire
 Iran 609 BC After the fall of Assyria between 616 BC and 609 BC, a unified Median state was formed, which together with Babylonia, Lydia, and ancient Egypt became one of the four major powers of the ancient Near East.
 Iraq 762 The Abbasid Caliphate built the city of Baghdad along the Tigris in the 8th century as its capital, and the city became the leading metropolis of the Arab and Muslim world for five centuries
3 October 1932 Kingdom of Iraq
 Israel 110 BC From 110 BCE, with the Seleucid Empire disintegrating, the dynasty became fully independent, expanded into the neighboring regions of Samaria, Galilee, Iturea, Perea, and Idumea, and the rulers took the title "basileus". Some modern scholars refer to this period as an independent kingdom of Israel
 Japan 4th century CE During the subsequent Kofun period, most of Japan gradually unified under a single kingdom
 Jordan 25 May 1946 End of the British Mandate for Palestine
 North Korea 9 September 1948 Declaration of the creation of North Korea
 South Korea 15 August 1945 Japanese rule of Korea ends
15 August 1948 First Republic of Korea established, Independence declared from the United States.
 Kuwait 1752 Establishment of the Sheikhdom of Kuwait
 Kyrgyzstan 31 August 1991 Independence from the Soviet Union
 Laos 22 October 1953 Independence from France
 Lebanon 26 November 1941 Independence from France declared
22 November 1943 Independence from France recognized
 Malaysia 31 August 1957 Malayan Independence from the United Kingdom was declared in Dataran Merdeka (Independence Square)
16 September 1963 Malaysia was formed by the federation of North Borneo, Sarawak and Singapore with the existing States of the Federation of Malaya.
 Maldives 26 July 1965 Independence from the United Kingdom
 Mongolia 1206 Mongol Empire formed
29 December 1911 Proclamation of Mongolian independence from Manchu's Qing Dynasty
 Myanmar 4 January 1948 Myanmar (Burma) declares independence from the British Empire
   Nepal 25 September 1768 Nepali unification
 Oman 26 January 1650 Expulsion of the Portuguese
 Pakistan 14 August 1947 Independence from British India in the Partition
 Palestine 15 November 1988 Palestinian Declaration of Independence
 Philippines 12 June 1898 The evolving revolutionary movement in the Philippines declares itself independent from the Spanish Empire.
4 July 1946 The United States recognizes independence under the provisions of the Treaty of Manila (1946). The 1935 Constitution remained in effect until 1973, when the Marcos regime promulgated a newer one, in turn replaced by the present 1987 Constitution.
 Qatar 18 December 1878 Independence from the Ottoman Empire
 Saudi Arabia 1744 Establishment of the First Saudi State
 Singapore 3 June 1959 Self-government under the United Kingdom
9 August 1965 separate from and independent of Malaysia
 Sri Lanka 4 February 1948 Independence from United Kingdom
 Syria 28 September 1961 End of the United Arab Republic
 Tajikistan 9 September 1991 Independence from the Soviet Union
 Thailand 6 November 1767 Salvage independence by Great king Taksin consist of Expulsion of Burmese and Establish a new kingdom together with reunification of Thailand
 Timor-Leste 28 November 1975 East Timor declares its independence but was suppressed by the Indonesian invasion
20 May 2002 Independence was recognized by the international community following the UN-sponsored act of self-determination of 1999
 Turkmenistan 27 October 1991 Independence from the Soviet Union
 United Arab Emirates 2 December 1971 End of treaty relationship with the United Kingdom
 Uzbekistan 31 August 1991 Independence from the Soviet Union declared
 Vietnam 2 September 1945 Withdrawal of the Japanese after World War II
 Yemen 1 November 1918 North Yemen independence from the Ottoman Empire
30 November 1967 South Yemen independence from the United Kingdom
Table notes
  1. China: For some clarification and more detail including the sovereignty status of the Republic of China, see the following articles: History of China, Cross-Strait relations, One-China policy and Political status of Taiwan.

Individual countries

Burma

See Burma's colonial era.

Burma was almost completely occupied by the Imperial Japanese Army during the Second World War. Many Burmese fought alongside Japan in the initial stages of the war, though the Burmese Army and most Burmese switched sides in 1945.

A transitional government sponsored by the British government was formed in the years following the Second World War, ultimately leading to Burma's independence in January 1948.

Cambodia

See Cambodia's passage to independence.

Following the capitulation of France and the formation of the Vichy regime, France's Indochinese possessions were given to Japan. While there was some argument that Indochina should not be returned to France, particularly from the United States, Cambodia nevertheless remained under French rule after the end of hostilities.

France had placed Norodom Sihanouk on the throne in 1941, and were hoping for a puppet monarch. They were mistaken however, as the King led the way to Cambodian independence in 1953, taking advantage of the background of the First Indochina War being fought in Vietnam.

Ceylon

See Ceylon and independence.

Ceylon was an important base of operations for the Western Allies during the Second World War. The British gave in to popular pressure for independence and in February 1948, the country won its independence as the Dominion of Ceylon.

Hong Kong

Hong Kong was returned to the United Kingdom following its occupation by the Japanese during the Second World War.[2] It was controlled directly by a British governor until the expiry of the ninety-nine-year lease of the New Territories, which occurred in 1997. From that date the territory was returned to People's Republic of China and controlled as a Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China.

Philippines

The Philippines unilaterally declared independence from Spain on 12 June 1898 under the leadership of President Emilio Aguinaldo, culminating the 1896 Revolution. Unbeknownst to the newly established government and the Filipino people in general, the United States of America had secretly arranged to purchase the colony along with several other possessions from Spain through the Treaty of Paris that concluded the Spanish–American War. After staging a mock battle in Manila, the Philippine–American War ensued until the Philippine government capitulated in 1902.

The Philippines subsequently underwent successive stages of rule under the United States, first as an unincorporated territory, then as a Commonwealth. It was then occupied by the Japanese during the Second World War. In 1943, Japan granted its short-lived independence to the Philippines and in 1944, the Allied invasion of the Philippines by combined U.S. and Filipino troops began, which resulted in America regaining full control of the nation. In 1946, the United States gave the Philippines its independence.

Timeline

The "colonial power" and "colonial name" columns are merged when required to denote territories, where current countries are established, that have not been decolonised but achieved independence in different ways.

Country and Region[lower-alpha 1] Colonial name Colonial power[lower-alpha 2] Independence declared[lower-alpha 3] First head of state[lower-alpha 4] Independence won through
 Philippines Spanish East Indies  Spain June 12, 1898 Emilio Aguinaldo -[lower-alpha 5]
 Yemen[lower-alpha 6]  Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen
 Colony and Protectorate of Aden 		 Ottoman Empire
 British Empire 		November 1, 1918
November 30, 1967 		Yahya I
Qahtan Mohammed al-Shaabi 		World War I
Aden Emergency
 Afghanistan  Emirate of Afghanistan  British Empire August 19, 1919 Amanullah Khan Third Anglo-Afghan War
 Egypt[lower-alpha 7] Sultanate of Egypt February 28, 1922[lower-alpha 8] Fuad I[lower-alpha 9] Egyptian revolution of 1919
 Iraq Mandatory Iraq October 3, 1932[lower-alpha 10] Faisal I of Iraq -[lower-alpha 11]
 Lebanon Greater Lebanon  France November 22, 1943 Bechara El Khoury[lower-alpha 12] –
 Syria Mandate of Syria November 30, 1943 Shukri al-Quwatli Syrian Revolution
 Indonesia[lower-alpha 13]  Dutch East Indies
 Empire of Japan 		 Netherlands
 Japan 		August 17, 1945
December 27, 1949[lower-alpha 14] 		Sukarno Indonesian National Revolution
 Vietnam[lower-alpha 15]  French Indochina  Empire of Japan  France
 Japan		 September 2, 1945 Hồ Chí Minh August Revolution
 Jordan Emirate of Transjordan  British Empire May 25, 1946 Abdullah I –
 Philippines  Empire of Japan  Commonwealth of the Philippines  United States
 Japan 		July 4, 1946 Manuel Roxas –
 Pakistan[lower-alpha 16]  India  British Empire August 14, 1947 Liaquat Ali Khan[lower-alpha 17] -[lower-alpha 18]
 Bangladesh
as part of  Pakistan 		August 14, 1947[lower-alpha 19] Liaquat Ali Khan[lower-alpha 20]
 India[lower-alpha 21] August 15, 1947[lower-alpha 22] Jawaharlal Nehru[lower-alpha 23] Indian independence movement
 Myanmar[lower-alpha 24]  British Burma
 Japan 		January 4, 1948 U Nu
 Sri Lanka[lower-alpha 25]  British Ceylon February 4, 1948
February 22, 1972 		Don Senanayake –
 Israel  Mandatory Palestine  British Empire
 Arab League 		May 14, 1948[lower-alpha 26] David Ben-Gurion[lower-alpha 27] 1948 Palestine war
 South Korea Japanese Korea  Empire of Japan August 15, 1945;
August 15, 1948[lower-alpha 28] 		Syngman Rhee[lower-alpha 29] Korean independence movement
 North Korea August 15, 1945;
September 9, 1948[lower-alpha 30] 		Kim Il-sung[lower-alpha 31]
 China[lower-alpha 32]  Manchukuo August 9, 1945 Chiang kai shek[lower-alpha 33] Second Sino-Japanese War
Nationalist government on Mainland China  Republic of China October 1, 1949[lower-alpha 34] Chinese Civil War
 Laos[lower-alpha 35]  French Indochina  France October 22, 1953[lower-alpha 36] Sisavang Vong[lower-alpha 37] -[lower-alpha 38]
 Cambodia November 9, 1953 Norodom Sihanouk
 Malaysia  Malaya
Colony of North Borneo
Colony of Sarawak 		 British Empire August 31, 1957
September 16, 1963 		Tuanku Abdul Rahman Malayan Emergency[lower-alpha 39]
 Cyprus British Cyprus August 16, 1960[lower-alpha 40] Makarios III -[lower-alpha 41]
 Kuwait Sheikhdom of Kuwait June 19, 1961[lower-alpha 42] Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah –
 Oman  Muscat and Oman[lower-alpha 43] August 9, 1970 Qaboos bin Said Night attack on Muscat
-[lower-alpha 44]
 Singapore  Straits Settlements August 31, 1963;
August 9, 1965[lower-alpha 45] 		Yusof Ishak –
 Maldives Maldives July 26, 1965 Muhammad Fareed Didi –
 Qatar Qatar September 3, 1971 Ahmad bin Ali Al Thani –
 United Arab Emirates  Trucial States December 2, 1971[lower-alpha 46] Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan –
 Bahrain  Bahrain August 15, 1971[4][lower-alpha 47] Isa ibn Salman Al Khalifa[lower-alpha 48] -[lower-alpha 49]
 East Timor  Dutch East Indies
 Portuguese Timor
 Timor Timur  Empire of Japan 		 Dutch East Indies
 German Empire
 United Kingdom
 Australia Japan  Portugal
 Indonesia 		January 1, 1769 – November 28, 1975 (Portuguese Colonization Period)1945 November 28, 1975
November 28, 1975 – May 20, 2002 (Indonesian Invasion & Occupation)
May 20, 2002 (Independence from Indonesia)
[lower-alpha 50] 		Francisco Xavier do Amaral;
Xanana Gusmão 		–
 Brunei  Brunei  British Empire January 1, 1984 Hassanal Bolkiah -[lower-alpha 51]
 Hong Kong  British Hong Kong July 1, 1997[lower-alpha 52] Tung Chee-hwa –
 Macau  Portuguese Macau  Portugal December 20, 1999[lower-alpha 52] Edmund Ho –
 Palestine[lower-alpha 53][lower-alpha 54][lower-alpha 56]  Mandatory Palestine
 West Bank
 British Empire
 Arab League
 Jordan
May 14, 1948
June 10, 1967;
November 15, 1988;
independence pending due to territorial dispute with Israel 		N/A;
Yasser Arafat;
Mahmoud Abbas 		Six-Day War;
Egypt–Israel peace treaty;
Jordanian disengagement from the West Bank;
Israeli–Palestinian conflict

Timeline
Country Colonial name Colonial power Independence declared First head of state
 Japan Establishment under the first Legendary Emperor 11 February 660 Bc[lower-alpha 57] Emperor Jimmu
 China Unification under the Qin dynasty 221 BC Qin Shi Huang
 Thailand Establishment as the Kingdom of Sukhothai 1238 Sri Indraditya
 Turkey[lower-alpha 58] Established in Anatolia of the Seljuks of Anatolia 1299 Osman I
 Russia[lower-alpha 58] Duchy of Moscow terminates Mongol vassalage 8 September 1380 Dmitry of Moscow
 Iran Establishment under the Safavid dynasty 1502 Ismail I
 Bhutan Establishment as the Kingdom of Bhutan 1616 Ngawang Namgyal
   Nepal Unification as the  Kingdom of Nepal 21 December 1768 Prithvi Narayan
 Saudi Arabia Arabia  Ottoman Empire 1824 Turki bin Abdullah bin Muhammad
 Philippines Spanish East Indies  Spanish Empire 12 June 1898 Emilio Aguinaldo
 Kazakhstan Russian Turkestan  Russian Empire 13 December 1917 Alikhan Bukeikhanov
 Armenia Caucasus Viceroyalty 28 May 1918 Hovhannes Kajaznuni
 Azerbaijan Mammad Amin Rasulzadeh
 Yemen Kingdom of Yemen
Colony and Protectorate of Aden 		 Ottoman Empire
 British Empire 		1 November 1918
30 November 1967 		Yahya I
Qahtan Mohammed al-Shaabi
 Afghanistan Afghanistan  British Empire 19 August 1919 Amānullāh Khān
 Mongolia  Republic of China  Republic of China 9 July 1921 Bogd Khan
 Egypt[lower-alpha 59] Sultanate of Egypt  British Empire 28 February 1922[lower-alpha 60] Fuad I
 Iraq Mandatory Iraq  Ottoman Empire
 British Empire 		3 October 1932 Faisal I
 Lebanon Greater Lebanon  Ottoman Empire
 France 		8 November 1943 Bechara Khoury
 Syria Mandate of Syria 30 November 1943 Shukri al-Quwatli
 Taiwan Taiwan  Japan 25 October 1945[lower-alpha 61] Chen Yi
 Jordan  Transjordan mandate  Ottoman Empire
 British Empire 		25 May 1946 Abdullah I
 Philippines  Commonwealth of the Philippines  United States 4 July 1946 Manuel Roxas
 Pakistan  British Raj  British Empire 14 August 1947[lower-alpha 62] Muhammad Ali Jinnah
 India 15 August 1947[lower-alpha 63] Jawaharlal Nehru
 Burma  British Burma 4 January 1948 Sao Shwe Thaik
 Sri Lanka  Dominion of Ceylon 4 February 1948
22 February 1972 		Don Senanayake
 Israel  Mandatory Palestine  Ottoman Empire
 British Empire 		14 May 1948 David Ben-Gurion
 South Korea Chōsen  Japan 15 August 1948 Rhee Syung-man
 North Korea 9 September 1948[lower-alpha 64] Kim il-Sung
 Indonesia[lower-alpha 65]  Dutch East Indies  Netherlands 17 August 1945[lower-alpha 66] Sukarno
 Cambodia  French Indochina  France 17 October 1953 Norodom Sihanouk
 Laos 1 August 1954 Sisavang Vong
 Vietnam Hồ Chí Minh
Bảo Đại
 Malaysia  Malaya
Colony of North Borneo
Colony of Sarawak 		 British Empire 31 August 1957
16 September 1963 		Tuanku Abdul Rahman
 Cyprus[lower-alpha 67] British Cyprus 16 August 1960 Makarios III
 Kuwait  Kuwait 19 June 1961 Abdullah III Al-Salim Al-Sabah
 Oman  Muscat and Oman  Portugal
 British Empire 		26 January 1650
1962 		Sultan I bin Saif
Said bin Taimur
 Singapore  Straits Settlements  British Empire
 Malaysia 		31 August 1963;
9 August 1965[lower-alpha 68] 		Yusof Ishak
 Maldives Maldives  British Empire 26 July 1965 Muhammad Fareed Didi
 Bangladesh East Pakistan  Pakistan 16 December 1971 Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
 Qatar  Qatar  British Empire 3 September 1971 Ahmad bin Ali Al Thani
 United Arab Emirates  Trucial States 2 December 1971[lower-alpha 69] Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan
 Bahrain  Bahrain 16 December 1971 Isa ibn Salman Al Khalifa
 Brunei  Brunei 1 January 1984 Hassanal Bolkiah
 Georgia Caucasus Viceroyalty
Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic 		 Russian Empire
 Soviet Union 		26 March 1918
9 April 1991 		Noe Ramishvili
Zviad Gamsakhurdia
 Kyrgyzstan Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic  Soviet Union 31 August 1991 Askar Akayev
 Armenia Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic  Soviet Union 21 September 1991 Levon Ter-Petrosyan
 Azerbaijan Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic 18 October 1991 Ayaz Mutallibov
 Kazakhstan Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic 16 December 1991 Nursultan Nazarbayev
 Hong Kong  British Hong Kong  British Empire 1 July 1997 Tung Chee-hwa
 Macau Portuguese Macau  Portugal 20 December 1999 Edmund Ho
 Timor-Leste[lower-alpha 70]  Portuguese Timor
Timor Timur 		 Portugal
 Indonesia 		28 November 1975;
20 May 2002[lower-alpha 71] 		Francisco Xavier do Amaral;
Xanana Gusmão
 Palestine  Mandatory Palestine
 Occupied Palestinian Territories[lower-alpha 72] 		 Ottoman Empire
 British Empire
 Israel 		15 May 1948;
independence not yet effectuated[lower-alpha 56] 		 ?;
Mahmoud Abbas

Soviet Union

The 9 states may be divided into the following five regional categories. The distinguishing traits of each region result from geographic and cultural factors as well as their respective historical relations with Russia. Not included in these categories are the several de facto independent states presently lacking international recognition (read below: Separatist conflicts).

Region Country name Flag Capital Independence
Asia Russia(Russian Federation) Moscow December 12, 1991
Central Asia Uzbekistan(Republic of Uzbekistan) Tashkent August 31, 1991
Kazakhstan(Republic of Kazakhstan) Nur-Sultan December 16, 1991
Kyrgyzstan(Kyrgyz Republic) Bishkek August 31, 1991
Tajikistan(Republic of Tajikistan) Dushanbe September 9, 1991
Turkmenistan(formerly the Republic of Turkmenistan) Ashgabat October 27, 1991
Transcaucasia Georgia(formerly the Republic of Georgia) Tbilisi April 9, 1991
Azerbaijan(Republic of Azerbaijan) Baku August 30, 1991
Armenia(Republic of Armenia) Yerevan September 21, 1991
Total former Soviet Union

Colonies, Protectorates and Mandates Uk
CountryPre-independence name
(different)		DateYear of independence or first stageNotes
 Afghanistan Northern Persia 19 August 1919 Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919
 Bahrain 15 August 1971
 Brunei 1 January 1984
 Cyprus 16 August 1960 Cyprus Independence Day is commonly celebrated on 1 October.
 Egypt 28 February 1922 Control over the Suez Canal Zone was maintained until 1952.
 India British India 15 August 1947 Independence Day (India)
 Iraq 3 October 1932
 Israel Mandatory Palestine 14 May 1948 end of British mandate
Independence Day (Israel)
 Palestine declared independence from Israel on 15 November 1988.
 Jordan Transjordan 25 May 1946
 Kuwait 19 June 1961
 Malaysia Four parts: Malaya, North Borneo, Singapore and Sarawak 31 August 1957 As the Federation of Malaya (Federation of Malaya Independence Act 1957). North Borneo (now Sabah), Sarawak and Singapore gained full independence and joined Malaysia on 16 September 1963 under the Malaysia Agreement (Malaysia Act 1963).
 Singapore gained independence from Malaysia on 9 August 1965.
 Maldives 26 July 1965
 Mauritius 12 March 1968
 Myanmar 4 January 1948 Gained independence as Burma. Renamed Myanmar in 1989, but still officially known by the United Kingdom government as Burma.
 Oman Sultanate of Muscat and Oman 20 December 1951
 Pakistan British India 14 August 1947 Partition of India
 Bangladesh gained independence from Pakistan on 26 March 1971.
 Qatar British Qatari Protectorate 3 September 1971
 Seychelles 29 June 1976
 Singapore 3 June 1959 Became self-governing on 3 June 1959, gained independence from Malaysia on the 9 August 1965.
 Sri Lanka Ceylon 4 February 1948 Gained independence as the Dominion of Ceylon. Renamed Sri Lanka in 1972.
 United Arab Emirates Trucial States 2 December 1971 National Day (United Arab Emirates)
 Yemen Protectorate of South Arabia
Federation of South Arabia		 30 November 1967 South Yemen 1967

List of European colonies in Asia

British colonies in South Asia, East Asia, And Southeast Asia:

Danish India (1696–1869)
Swedish Parangipettai (1733)
British India (1613–1947)
British East India Company (1757–1858)
British Raj (1858–1947)

French colonies in South and Southeast Asia:

Dutch, British, Portuguese colonies and Russian territories in Asia:

Portuguese Malacca (1511–1641)
Dutch Malacca (1641–1824)
British Malaya, included:
Federation of Malaya (under British rule, 1948–1963)
Spanish Philippines (1565–1898, 3rd longest European occupation in Asia, 333 years),
Insular Government of the Philippine Islands and Commonwealth of the Philippines, United States colony (1898–1946)
Spanish Formosa (1626–1642)
Dutch Formosa (1624–1662)

Independent states
  • China – independent, but within European cultures of influence which were largely limited to the colonised ports except for Manchuria.
  • Bhutan – in British sphere of influence
  • Iran – in Russian sphere of influence in the north and British in the south
  • Japan – a Great power that had its own colonial empire (including Korea and Taiwan)
  • Mongolia – in Russian sphere of influence and later Soviet controlled
  • Nepal – in British sphere of influence
  • Thailand – the only independent state in Southeast Asia, but bordered by a British sphere of influence in the north and south and French influence in the northeast and east
  • Turkey – successor to the Ottoman Empire in 1923; the Ottoman Empire itself could be considered a colonial empire

Asian colonies from the 17th century to the end of the Second World War Japan

The following list shows the colonial powers following the end of World War II in 1945, their colonial or administrative possessins and date of decolonization.

Territory Date Notes
South Sakhalin prewar-1945
Mainland China 1931–1945 Manchukuo 50 million (1940), Jehol, Kwantung Leased Territory, Jiangsu, Shanghai, Shandong, Hebei, Beijing, Tianjin, plus parts of : Guangdong, Guangxi, Hubei, Hunan, Fujian, Guizhou, Inner Mongolia
Japan prewar-1945 Present day Japan, Kuril and Ryukyu Islands
Korea prewar-1945 Both North and South
Taiwan prewar-1945
Hong Kong December 12, 1941 – August 15, 1945 Hong Kong (UK)
:: East Asia (subtotal) –
Vietnam July 15, 1940 – August 29, 1945 As French Indochina (FR)
Cambodia July 15, 1940 – August 29, 1945 As French Indochina, Japanese occupation of Cambodia
Laos July 15, 1940 – August 29, 1945 As French Indochina, Japanese occupation of Laos
Thailand December 8, 1941 – August 15, 1945 Independent State but Allied with Japan
Malaysia March 27, 1942 – September 6, 1945 (Malaya), March 29, 1942 – September 9, 1945 (Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, North Borneo) As Malaya (UK), British Borneo (UK), Brunei (UK)
Philippines May 8, 1942 – July 5, 1945 Philippines (US)
Dutch East Indies January 18, 1942 – October 21, 1945 Dutch East Indies (NL)
Singapore February 15, 1942 – September 9, 1945 Singapore (UK)
Myanmar 1942–1945 Burma (UK)
East Timor February 19, 1942 – September 2, 1945 Portuguese Timor (PT)
:: Southeast Asia (subtotal) –
New Guinea December 27, 1941 – September 15, 1945 As Papua and New Guinea (AU)
Guam January 6, 1942 – October 24, 1945 from Guam (US)
South Seas Mandate 1919–1945 from German Empire
Nauru August 26, 1942 – September 13, 1945 from United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand
Wake Island, US December 27, 1941 – September 4, 1945 US
Kiribati December 1941 – January 22, 1944 from Gilbert Islands (UK)
:: Pacific Islands (subtotal) –

Disclaimer: Not all areas were considered part of Imperial Japan but rather part of puppet states & sphere of influence, allies, included separately for demographic purposes. Sources: POPULSTAT Asia Oceania

Other occupied World War 2 islands:

Areas attacked but not conquered

Raided without immediate intent of occupation

Asia Territorial evolution of the British Empire
Name of territory Dates Status Comments
Aden 1839 Colony subordinate to Bombay Presidency British India
1932 Separate province of British India
1937 Separate Crown colony
1963 Part of Federation of South Arabia
Afghanistan 1839–1842 Protectorate
1879 Protectorate
1919 Independence
Assam 1874–1905 Province of British India
1905–1912 Incorporated into the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam
1912–1947 Province of British India Now a state of the Republic of India
Bahrain 1880 Protectorate
1961–1971 Autonomous
1971 Independence Invited to join the Trucial States, but declined
Baluchistan 1877–1896 Province
1896–1947 Province of British India
1947 Part of Pakistan Now part of Balochistan and the Federally Administered Tribal Areas, in Pakistan
Bantam 1603–1609 Station
1609–1617 Factory
1617–1621 Presidency
1621 Expelled by the Dutch
1630–1634 Subordinated to Surat
1634–1652 Presidency
1652–1682 Subordinated to Surat
1682 Expelled by the Dutch Now in Indonesia
Bencoolen
("Fort York", later "Fort Marlborough")		 1685–1760 Coastal settlements of southwestern Sumatra, subordinated to Madras
1760–1785 Presidency
1785–1825 Subordinated to Bengal Presidency
1825 Part of Dutch East Indies Now Bengkulu, in Indonesia
Bengal
("Fort William")		 1634–1658 Factories
1658–1681 Subordinated to Madras
1681–82 Agency
1682–1694 Presidency of Coromandel and Bengal Settlements
1694–1698 Subordinated to Madras
1698–1700 Presidency of Coromandel and Bengal Settlements
1700–1774 Presidency
1774–1905 Presidency of British India
1905–1912 Partitioned between [West] Bengal and Eastern Bengal and Assam
1912–1937 Presidency of British India
1937–1947 Province of British India
1947 Divided between India (West Bengal) and Pakistan (East Bengal) Now Bangladesh, and part of West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, and Jharkhand, in India
Brunei 1888 Protectorate
1967 Protected state
1984 Independence
Burma (now called Myanmar) 1824–1852 Arakan, Tenasserim
1852–1886 Lower Burma
1885–1886 Upper Burma
1886 Lower and Upper Burma United as province of British India
1937 Separate Crown Colony
1948 Independence Name changed to Myanmar after a military junta in 1989.
Eastern Bengal and Assam 1905–1912 Province of British India Established upon the partition of Bengal (1905)
1912 Partition reversed Split between the re-established province of Assam and the re-constituted presidency of Bengal
Ceylon 1795 Ceded by the Dutch and subordinated to the Madras presidency of British India
1798 Separate Crown colony
1948 Independence Now the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka
Dansborg 1801–02 Occupied
1808–1815 Occupied
1845 purchased and incorporated into British India Now in Tamil Nadu state, India
Frederiksnagore 1801–02 Occupied
1808–1815 Occupied
1845 Purchased and incorporated into British India Now in West Bengal state, India
Hong Kong 1841 Hong Kong Island occupied
1843–1982 Crown colony
1860 Kowloon and Stonecutters Island ceded by China
1898 New Territories leased from China for 99 years
1942–1945 Occupied by Japan
1945–1946 Military administration
1983–1997 Dependent territory
1997 Handover to China as a special administrative region
Kuwait 1899 Protectorate
1961 Independence
Indian Empire (British Raj) 1613 Company rule in India
1858 Crown rule over the Indian Princely states, the Presidencies and provinces of British India
1947 Independent as India & Pakistan after partition
Mandatory Iraq 1920–1932 League of Nations mandate never passed, replaced by Anglo-Iraqi treaty with the Kingdom of Iraq
Java 1811–1816 Territory of the East India Company restored to the Netherlands
Malaya 1824 Transferred following Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824
1824–1867 Territory of British East India Company
1867–1946 Straits Settlements, Crown colony
1895–1946 Federated Malay States, protectorate
1885–1946 Johor, protectorate (part of Unfederated Malay States)
1909–1946 Kedah, protectorate (part of Unfederated Malay States)
1909–1946 Kelantan, protectorate (part of Unfederated Malay States)
1909–1946 Perlis, protectorate (part of Unfederated Malay States)
1909–1946 Terengganu, protectorate (part of Unfederated Malay States)
1942–1945 Japanese occupation
1945–1946 Military Administration
1946–1948 Malayan Union
1948–1957 Federation of Malaya
1957–1963 Independent state
1963 Annex North Borneo and Sarawak forming the renamed federation of Malaysia
North Borneo 1882–1946 Protectorate
1945–1946 Military administration Labuan to British N. Borneo on 15 July 1946
1946–1963 Crown colony Labuan to British N. Borneo on 15 July 1946
1963 Self-government
1963 Annexed by Malaya into Malaysia
Palestine 1920 Mandate
1948 British sovereignty relinquished; proposed partition between a Jewish and an Arab state never fully materialized; the Jewish state – Israel – was established immediately after British withdrawal, with the short-lived All-Palestine government following six months later
1949 Two sections of the former Palestine Mandate outside Israel – the West Bank and the Gaza Strip – were occupied by Egypt and Jordan respectively following the collapse of the All-Palestine government
1956 Gaza Strip briefly falls under Israeli occupation during the Suez Crisis
1967 West Bank and Gaza Strip fall under Israeli occpuation as a consequence of the Six-day War
1993 A Palestinian National Authority is declared in the West Bank and Gaza Strip; most matters regarding the day-to-day governance of these territories fell under its jurisdiction, in anticipation of a future Palestinian state
2005 Israel formally withdraws from the Gaza Strip, placing it under full PNA control; despite this, Gazan waters are still under Israeli military control
Pulo Condore Island (Côn Đảo) 1702 Possession of British East India Company
1705 Abandoned Now Côn Đảo, in Vietnam
Sarawak 1888–1946 Protected States
1945–1946 Military administration
1946–1963 Crown colony
1963 Self-government
1963 Annexed by Malaya into Malaysia
Straits Settlements 1826–1858 Possession under British East India Company
1858–1867 Subordinated to British India
1867–1946 Crown colony
1942–1945 Occupied by Japan
1946 Dissolved Now divided between Malacca and Penang, in Malaysia, and Singapore
Qatar 1916–1971 Protectorate
1971 Independence Invited to join the Trucial States, but declined
Surat 1612–1658 Factory
1658–1668 Presidency
1668–1685 Possession under British East India Company
1685–1703 Subordinated to Bombay
1703 Incorporated into Bombay Now in India
Singapore 1824 Purchased
1824 Part of Straits Settlements (as residency of the Presidency of Bengal)
1867–1946 Part of Straits Settlements (crown colony)
1946–1955 Crown colony
1955–1959 self-governing colony
1959–1963 State of Singapore
1963–1965 Part of Malaysia
1965 Independence
Transjordan 1920 Part of Palestine Mandate
1923 Formally separated from Palestine
1928 Emirate independent, except military and finance control
1946 Formal independence Now known as Jordan
Trucial States 1892 Protectorate
1971 Formation of Federation of Arab Emirates Now part of the United Arab Emirates
Weihaiwei 1898–1930 Leased from China
1930 Returned to the Republic of China Now part of the People's Republic of China
West Bengal
("Bengal")		 1905–1912 Province of British India Established by the partition of Bengal. Abolished with the reversal of the partition and the creation of the new province of Bihar and Orissa.

In Asia Territorial evolution of the French Empire

See also

Notes
  1. Timeline list arranged according to current countries. Explanatory notes are added in cases where decolonization was achieved jointly or where the current state is formed by merger of previously decolonized states. Former Soviet republics (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan), as well as Kuwait under Iraqi rule are excluded from this list, as they were not administered as colonies. Countries like Bhutan, China, Iran, and Japan are also excluded, as they were able to maintain their sovereignty despite encroachment by the Western colonial powers.
  2. Some territories changed hands multiple times, so in the list is mentioned the last colonial power. In addition to it the mandatory or trustee powers are mentioned for territories that were League of Nations mandates and United Nations trust territories.
  3. Date of decolonization. Dates for territories annexed by or integrated into previously decolonized independent countries are given in separate notes. Subsequent mergers, secessions and civil and other wars in the period after decolonization and the resulting states and federations are not part of this list and are only noted- see the list of sovereign states by formation date. Date of when a commonwealth realm abolished its monarchy are noted. Any discrepancies between dates listed here and public holidays celebrating the country's independence (and whether the date listed is celebrated as a holiday at all) are noted, as well as the national day if the country does not have an independence day.
  4. For countries that became independent either as a Commonwealth realm or as a parliamentary republic the head of government is listed instead.
  5. In the 1896-19 period there were the Philippine Revolution and Philippine–American War. Prior to American invasion and annexation, the country declared independence from Spain during 1898.
  6. North Yemen and South Yemen were unified into the Republic of Yemen on 22 May 1990.
  7. As the Kingdom of Egypt. Transcontinental country, partially located in Africa.
  8. Not celebrated as a holiday. On 28 February 1922 the British government issued the Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence. Through this declaration, the British government unilaterally ended its protectorate over Egypt and granted it nominal independence with the exception of four "reserved" areas: foreign relations, communications, the military and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.[3] The Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936 reduced British involvement, but still was not welcomed by Egyptian nationalists, who wanted full independence from Britain, which was not achieved until 23 July 1952. The last British troops left Egypt after the Suez Crisis of 1956. For this, the 23 July date, celebrated as Revolution Day, serves as Egypt's national day.
  9. Although the leaders of the 1952 revolution (Mohammed Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser) became the de facto leaders of Egypt, neither would assume office until September 17 of that year when Naguib became Prime Minister, succeeding Aly Maher Pasha who was sworn in on the day of the revolution. Nasser would succeed Naguib as Prime Minister on 25 February 1954.
  10. Celebrated as National Day. (While Iraq does not have a holiday called Independence Day, National Day is celebrated as such).
  11. The Iraqi revolt against the British was an armed uprising that failed to prevent the incoming British colonization.
  12. Riad Al Solh was Prime Minister on the date of independence.
  13. Transcontinental country, partially located in Oceania.
  14. Not celebrated as a holiday. Netherlands New Guinea was separated from the Dutch East Indies on 29 December 1949. Following skirmishes with Indonesia in 1961 and the New York Agreement, the Netherlands transferred authority of Dutch New Guinea to a UN protectorate on 1 October 1962 and it was integrated into Indonesia on 1 May 1963. The date 17 August 1945 (when Sukarno formally proclaimed Indonesia's independence) is celebrated as Indonesia's date of independence.
  15. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam proclaimed independence on 2 September 1945 as the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. The State of Vietnam declared independence on 14 June 1949, but remained de facto under French rule until 1 August 1954. South Vietnam was the successor state to the State of Vietnam under the name of Republic of Vietnam. Both parts of Vietnam merged into the Socialist Republic of Vietnam on 30 April 1975, after the Vietnam War.
  16. As the Dominion of Pakistan.
  17. Muhammad Ali Jinnah became Governor-General of Pakistan upon independence.
  18. See Pakistan Movement.
  19. Not celebrated as a holiday. On 16 December 1971, after months of fighting starting from 26 March of that year, Bangladesh formally seceded from Pakistan. The 26 March date is celebrated as Bangladesh's date of independence.
  20. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was the President on the date of Bangladesh's secession.
  21. As the Dominion of India.
  22. Subsequently, a free and sovereign India unilaterally annexed Hyderabad State from Mir Osman Ali Khan in 1948 and Goa from Portugal in 1961; Puducherry was ceded by France in 1954. On 26 January 1950, India formally abolished its Commonwealth monarchy and became a republic.
  23. Remained Prime Minister when India abolished it monarchy. Rajendra Prasad became President upon abolition.
  24. As the Union of Burma.
  25. As the Dominion of Ceylon.
  26. 5 Iyar 5708 on the Jewish calendar. As Israel based its holidays on the Jewish calendar, celebrations do not always corresponds with the Georgian date. One day after Israel declared its independence, the Arab League launched an attack on Israel that would last until 20 July 1949, ending with Israel securing its sovereignty.
  27. Originally as Chairman of the Provisional State Council before becoming Prime Minister three days after independence; Chaim Weizmann succeeded him on that same day. Both remained in office (this time with Weizmann as President) on the date of the armistice.
  28. Date of Japanese surrender and the transfer of the southern half of the Korean peninsula to the United States. Celebrated as Liberation Day (or "Gwangbokjeol"). American administration lasted exactly three years. Gaecheonjeol ("National Foundation Day") celebrates the date 3 October 2333 BC, which (according to Korean mythology) was when the Gojoseon kingdom was founded.
  29. Assumed office on 24 July 1948 as President.
  30. Date of Japanese surrender and the transfer of the northern half of the Korean peninsula to the Soviet Union. Celebrated as Liberation Day (or "Jogukhaebangŭi nal"). Soviet administration lasted until 9 September 1948; this date, celebrated as Day of the Foundation of the Republic, serves as North Korea's national day.
  31. Assumed office as Premier on 9 September 1948. Kim Tu-bong became Chairman of the Standing Committee of the Supreme People's Assembly upon that same date.
  32. As the Republic of China.
  33. Chairman of the National Government of the Republic of China at that time. After the Japanese surrender, communists soon took most of the North-Eastern China because of the Soviets transfer occupation zone, then the civil war begin and both communists and nationalists began to compete for Northeast China.
  34. Date of establishment of the People's Republic by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The central government of the Republic of China evacuated to Taiwan on 7 December 1949 and continued to contested its claim of the sovereignty of all of China with the People's Republic. See also One-China policy.
  35. As the Kingdom of Laos.
  36. Not celebrated as a holiday. National Day celebrates the date 2 December 1975, which was when the Pathet Lao established the Lao People's Democratic Republic and ended both the monarchy and the decades-long civil war.
  37. Souvanna Phouma was Prime Minister on the date of independence.
  38. Although the First Indochina War occurred throughout French Indochina, most of the fighting was between the Việt Minh and France with occasional resistance from Laos and Cambodia. (The Kingdoms of Laos and Cambodia were nominal allies with France.)
  39. The Malayan Communist Party fought in the Malayan Emergency between June 1948 – 12 July 1960.
  40. Not celebrated as a holiday. For reasons unknown Cyprus celebrates October 1, 1960 as its date of independence.
  41. Armed struggles by the EOKA (Greek) and TMT (Turkish) organizations.
  42. Not celebrated as a holiday. National Day celebrates the date 25 February 1950, which was when Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah was crowned.
  43. Muscat and Oman was de facto a British protectorate. On 4 June 1856, the Sultan who ruled from Stone Town, Zanzibar, died without appointing an heir. With British intervention on 6 April 1861, Zanzibar and Oman were divided into two separate principalities. Zanzibar later became a formal British protectorate, but the British influence over Muscat and Oman remained informal. In 1962 Britain declared Muscat and Oman an independent nation.
  44. See the Dhofar Rebellion defeated with British help.
  45. Between 16 September 1963 and 9 August 1965 Singapore was part of the Federation of Malaysia.
  46. The independent UAE was joined by Ras al-Khaimah on 11 February 1972.
  47. Not celebrated as a holiday. National Day celebrates the date 16 December 1961, which was when Isa ibn Salman was crowned.[5]
  48. Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa was Prime Minister on the date of independence.
  49. The Bahraini independence survey, 1970 was a United Nation-run survey asking Bahrainis if they would rather be independent or under Iran control. Although a non-binding survey that makes no mention of the United Kingdom, the results (which showed an overwhelming majority supporting independence) led to Iran to denounce its claims over Bahrain, which in turn led to the United Kingdom to end its protectorate.
  50. Celebrated respectively as Proclamation of Independence Day and Independence Restoration Day. Independence was declared on 28 November 1975, but nine days later Indonesia invaded East Timor and formally annexed it on 17 July 1976. Throughout the Indonesian occupation most of international community refused to recognize East Timor as a province of Indonesia. Independence was restored after UN intervention from 25 October 1999 till 20 May 2002. Independence Restoration Day serves as East Timor's national day.
  51. The Brunei Revolt was a rebellion against the sultan suppressed with British assistance in 1966.
  52. Date of transfer to the People's Republic of China.
  53. Also referred to as Judea and Samaria Area or West Bank and Gaza Strip.
  54. In the aftermath of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War the Palestinian territories were divided between Israel, Egypt and Jordan. After the Egypt–Israel peace treaty (1982) and Jordanian disengagement from the West Bank (1988), following decades of Arab–Israeli conflict, the Palestine Liberation Organization declared independence for a State of Palestine, but its control over the West Bank and Gaza (through the Palestinian National Authority) is still limited due to continued conflict with Israel.
  55. Map of Gaza fishing limits, "security zones".
  56. Israel allows the PNA to execute some functions in the Palestinian territories, depending on the area classification. It maintains minimal interference (retaining control of borders: air,[6] sea beyond internal waters,[lower-alpha 55] land[7]) in the Gaza Strip (its interior and Egypt portion of the land border are under Hamas control), and varying degrees of interference elsewhere.[8][9][10][11][12] See also Israeli-occupied territories.
  57. In the aftermath of World War II, Japan was occupied by the Allies (mostly the United States) until 1952.
  58. Transcontinental country, partially located in Europe.
  59. Transcontinental country, partially located in Africa.
  60. On 28 February 1922 the British government issued the Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence. Through this declaration, the British government unilaterally ended its protectorate over Egypt and granted it nominal independence with the exception of four "reserved" areas: foreign relations, communications, the military and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.[13] The Anglo–Egyptian treaty of 1936 reduced British involvement, but still was not welcomed by Egyptian nationalists, who wanted full independence from Britain, which was not achieved until the 1952 revolution. The last British troops left Egypt after the Suez Crisis of 1956.
  61. Taiwan and the Penghu Islands were reverted to the Republic of China (formerly the Qing Empire) on 25 October 1945. Interpretations on whether this entails a complete transfer of the territory’s sovereignty to the Republic of China vary. Following the Chinese Civil War, the island of Taiwan became the main territory of the deposed central government of China on 7 December 1949 after the communists declared the People's Republic two months prior. Japan renounced the claims to Taiwan and Pescadores in the Treaty of San Francisco in 1952; see Cross–Strait relations, Retrocession Day, Theory of the Undetermined Status of Taiwan and political status of Taiwan.
  62. As the Dominion of Pakistan.
  63. Subsequently, a free and sovereign India unilaterally annexed Hyderabad State from a local ruler in 1948 and Goa from Portugal in 1961; Puducherry was ceded by France in 1954.
  64. The Korea peninsula was liberated from Japan on 15 August 1945. The southern half was put under United States administration until 15 August 1948. The northern half was put under Soviet administration until 9 September 1948.
  65. Transcontinental country, partially located in Oceania.
  66. Netherlands New Guinea was separated from the Dutch East Indies on 29 December 1949. Following skirmishes with Indonesia in 1961 and the New York Agreement, the Netherlands transferred authority of Dutch New Guinea to a UN protectorate on 1 October 1962 and it was integrated into Indonesia on 1 May 1963.
  67. Transcontinental country, located in Asia, but usually considered European.
  68. Between 16 September 1963 and 9 August 1965 Singapore was part of the Federation of Malaysia.
  69. The independent UAE was joined by Ras al-Khaimah on 11 February 1972.
  70. Transcontinental country, located in Oceania, but sometimes considered Asian.
  71. Independence was declared on 28 November 1975, but nine days later began the Indonesian invasion of East Timor. Independence was restored after UN intervention from 25 October 1999 till 20 May 2002.
  72. Also referred to as Judea and Samaria Area or West Bank and Gaza Strip.

References
  1. "List of former Trust and Non-Self-Governing Territories | the United Nations and Decolonization".
  2. "HONG KONG HARBOR IN HANDS OF BRITISH; Fleet Speeds Reoccupation-- Wedemeyer Sees U.S. Men Out of China by Spring". New York Times. Associated Press. 1945-08-31. Retrieved 2017-05-29.
  3. King, Joan Wucher (1989) [First published 1984]. Historical Dictionary of Egypt. Books of Lasting Value. American University in Cairo Press. pp. 259–260. ISBN 978-977-424-213-7.
  4. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2088.html#ba
  5. "National Day 2022, 2023 and 2024 in Bahrain".
  6. Israel's control of the airspace and the territorial waters of the Gaza Strip.
  7. Israel's Disengagement Plan: Renewing the Peace Process: "Israel will guard the perimeter of the Gaza Strip, continue to control Gaza air space, and continue to patrol the sea off the Gaza coast. ... Israel will continue to maintain its essential military presence to prevent arms smuggling along the border between the Gaza Strip and Egypt (Philadelphi Route), until the security situation and cooperation with Egypt permit an alternative security arrangement."
  8. "Israel: 'Disengagement' Will Not End Gaza Occupation". Human Rights Watch. 29 October 2004. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
  9. Gold, Dore; Institute for Contemporary Affairs (26 August 2005). "Legal Acrobatics: The Palestinian Claim that Gaza Is Still 'Occupied' Even After Israel Withdraws". Jerusalem Issue Brief. Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. 5 (3). Retrieved 16 July 2010.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. Bell, Abraham (28 January 2008). "International Law and Gaza: The Assault on Israel's Right to Self-Defense". Jerusalem Issue Brief. Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. 7 (29). Retrieved 16 July 2010.
  11. Transcript (22 January 2008). "Address by FM Livni to the 8th Herzliya Conference". Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 26 September 2011.
  12. Salih, Zak M. (17 November 2005). "Panelists Disagree Over Gaza's Occupation Status". University of Virginia School of Law. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 26 September 2011.
  13. King, Joan Wucher (1989). Historical Dictionary of Egypt. Books of Lasting Value. American University in Cairo Press. pp. 259–260. ISBN 978-977-424-213-7.

Further reading
  • Panikkar, K. M. (1953) Asia and Western Dominance, 1498–1945, London: G. Allen and Unwin.
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