Earth science

The following fields of science are generally categorized within the Earth sciences:

• Geology describes the rocky parts of the Earth's crust (or lithosphere) and its historic development. Major subdisciplines are mineralogy and petrology, geomorphology, paleontology, stratigraphy, structural geology, engineering geology, and sedimentology.[1][2]
• Physical geography focuses on geography as an Earth science. Physical geography is the study of Earth's seasons, climate, atmosphere, soil, streams, landforms, and oceans. Physical geography can be divided into several branches or related fields, as follows: geomorphology, biogeography, environmental geography, palaeogeography, climatology, meteorology, coastal geography, hydrology, ecology, glaciology.
• Geophysics and geodesy investigate the shape of the Earth, its reaction to forces and its magnetic and gravity fields. Geophysicists explore the Earth's core and mantle as well as the tectonic and seismic activity of the lithosphere.[2][3][4] Geophysics is commonly used to supplement the work of geologists in developing a comprehensive understanding of crustal geology, particularly in mineral and petroleum exploration. Seismologists use geophysics to understand plate tectonic shifting, as well as predict seismic activity.
• Geochemistry is defined as the study of the processes that control the abundance, composition, and distribution of chemical compounds and isotopes in geologic environments. Geochemists use the tools and principles of chemistry to study the composition, structure, processes, and other physical aspects of the Earth. Major subdisciplines are aqueous geochemistry, cosmochemistry, isotope geochemistry and biogeochemistry.
• Soil science covers the outermost layer of the Earth's crust that is subject to soil formation processes (or pedosphere).[5] Major subdivisions in this field of study include edaphology and pedology.[6]
• Ecology covers the interactions between organisms and their environment. This field of study differentiates the study of Earth from the study of other planets in the Solar System, Earth being its only planet teeming with life.
• Hydrology, oceanography and limnology are studies which focus on the movement, distribution, and quality of the water and involves all the components of the hydrologic cycle on the Earth and its atmosphere (or hydrosphere). "Sub-disciplines of hydrology include hydrometeorology, surface water hydrology, hydrogeology, watershed science, forest hydrology, and water chemistry."[7]
• Glaciology covers the icy parts of the Earth (or cryosphere).
• Atmospheric sciences cover the gaseous parts of the Earth (or atmosphere) between the surface and the exosphere (about 1000 km). Major subdisciplines include meteorology, climatology, atmospheric chemistry, and atmospheric physics.

A volcanic eruption is the release of stored energy from below Earth's surface.[8]

Plate tectonics, mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes are geological phenomena that can be explained in terms of physical and chemical processes in the Earth's crust.[9]

Beneath the Earth's crust lies the mantle which is heated by the radioactive decay of heavy elements. The mantle is not quite solid and consists of magma which is in a state of semi-perpetual convection. This convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as plate tectonics.[10][11][12][13]

Plate tectonics might be thought of as the process by which the Earth is resurfaced. As the result of seafloor spreading, new crust and lithosphere is created by the flow of magma from the mantle to the near surface, through fissures, where it cools and solidifies. Through subduction, oceanic crust and lithosphere returns to the convecting mantle.[11][13][14]

Areas of the crust where new crust is created are called divergent boundaries, those where it is brought back into the Earth are convergent boundaries and those where plates slide past each other, but no new lithospheric material is created or destroyed, are referred to as transform (or conservative) boundaries[11][13][15] Earthquakes result from the movement of the lithospheric plates, and they often occur near convergent boundaries where parts of the crust are forced into the earth as part of subduction.[16]

Volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material. Crust material that is forced into the asthenosphere melts, and some portion of the melted material becomes light enough to rise to the surface—giving birth to volcanoes.[11][16]

The magnetosphere shields the surface of Earth from the charged particles of the solar wind.
(image not to scale.)

The troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere are the five layers which make up Earth's atmosphere. 75% of the gases in the atmosphere are located within the troposphere, the lowest layer. In all, the atmosphere is made up of about 78.0% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, and 0.92% argon, and small amounts of other gases including CO₂ and water vapor.[17] Water vapor and CO₂ allow the Earth's atmosphere to catch and hold the Sun's energy through the greenhouse effect.[18] This allows Earth's surface to be warm enough to have liquid water and support life. In addition to storing heat, the atmosphere also protects living organisms by shielding the Earth's surface from cosmic rays—which are often incorrectly thought to be deflected by the magnetic field.[19] The magnetic field—created by the internal motions of the core—produces the magnetosphere which protects Earth's atmosphere from the solar wind.[20] As the Earth is 4.5 billion years old,[21] it would have lost its atmosphere by now if there were no protective magnetosphere.

An electromagnet is a magnet that is created by an electric current.[22] The Earth has a solid iron inner core surrounded by a fluid outer core that convects;[23] therefore, Earth is an electromagnet. The motion of fluid convection sustains the Earth's magnetic field.[23][24]

The magnetic field is also very important because some birds and insects use it to navigate over long distances, using the magnetized iron crystals found in their skin. The most important function of Earth's magnetic field is protecting its organisms. High energy protons are deflected along with electrons in the solar wind. If organisms were directly exposed to these particles it would be lethal.[25] For the consistency of a magnetic field to remain constant there must be an attractive magnetic field. If the motion of a magnetic field changes then every aspect of it does as well. It indicates a force that is proportional to the velocity of a moving charge.[26]

Magnetic flux density is generally measured in teslas. Another unit sometimes used is the gauss (G). 1 G is equivalent to 10⁻⁴ T (or 1 mG = 0.1µT).

In the image above the first example their anti-parallel currents with cause them to repel. In the second example they are parallel currents which cause attraction.

The Lorentz Force Law

The force exerted by a magnetic field on an object can be defined by the Lorentz Law.

${\displaystyle {\ce {\mathbf {F} =q(\mathbf {E} +\mathbf {v} \times \mathbf {B} )}}}$

where

• F is the force
• q is the object's electric charge
• E is the electric field
• v is the object's velocity
• B is the magnetic field strength.

The electromagnetic force holds atoms and molecules together. In fact, at this scale the forces of electric attraction and repulsion of electric charges are so dominant over the other three fundamental forces that they can be considered to be negligible as determiners of atomic and molecular structure.[27]

The Lorentz Force Law was named after Dutch physicist Hendrik Antoon Lorentz. He was the first to formulate this equation. Lorentz theorized that atoms might consist of charged particles and suggested that the oscillations of these charged particles were the source of light.[28]

Changing magnetic field through a coil of wire therefore must induce an EMF the coil which in turn causes current to flow.[29]

Methodologies vary depending on the nature of the subjects being studied. Studies typically fall into one of three categories: observational, experimental, or theoretical. Earth scientists often conduct sophisticated computer analysis or visit an interesting location to study earth phenomena (e.g. Antarctica or hot spot island chains).

A foundational idea in Earth science is the notion of uniformitarianism, which states that "ancient geologic features are interpreted by understanding active processes that are readily observed." In other words, any geologic processes at work in the present have operated in the same ways throughout geologic time. This enables those who study Earth's history to apply knowledge of how Earth processes operate in the present to gain insight into how the planet has evolved and changed throughout long history.

Earth science generally recognizes four spheres, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere;[30] these correspond to rocks, water, air and life. Also included by some are the cryosphere (corresponding to ice) as a distinct portion of the hydrosphere and the pedosphere (corresponding to soil) as an active and intermixed sphere.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Earth sciences.

• Earth Science Picture of the Day, a service of Universities Space Research Association, sponsored by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.
• Geoethics in Planetary and Space Exploration.
• Geology Buzz: Earth Science