• Colonialism and imperialism were significant historical events that had a profound impact on many parts of the world. There were a variety of contemporary reactions to European colonialism in Africa, India, China, and other regions during the 19th and early 20th centuries.

One of the most notable reactions to colonialism was the rise of anti-colonial and nationalist movements. These movements sought to resist and overthrow colonial rule and establish self-government. In Africa, figures such as Mahatma Gandhi in India and Nelson Mandela in South Africa became leaders of anti-colonial movements and fought for independence.

Additionally, many intellectuals, scholars and activists around the world heavily criticized and spoke out against colonialism, they argued that colonialism was unjust and detrimental to the colonized peoples and cultures. They also stated that it was a violation of human rights and they called for the end of colonial rule.

There were also a variety of religious and spiritual leaders who spoke out against colonialism and imperialism, including figures such as Swami Vivekananda and Rabindranath Tagore.

Books that can provide more in-depth information on contemporary reactions to colonialism include:

"The Anti-Colonial Moment in Africa: Metropolitan Anti-Colonialism and the Struggle for the Post-Colonial State" by Crawford Young

"Imperialism: A Study" by J.A. Hobson

"The Scramble for Africa" by Thomas Pakenham

"Indian Nationalism: A History" by John H. Kautsky

These books provide an in-depth look at the various reactions to colonialism, including the rise of anti-colonial and nationalist movements, the views of intellectuals and activists, and the role of religion and spirituality in resistance to colonialism.

The question of the state of Arabic literature and culture during the Ottoman Empire is a complex and nuanced one, and there are differing perspectives on the matter. The editors of "Desert Songs of the Night" present one perspective, which is that Arabic literature was almost completely lost from view under Ottoman rule, and that it was only through the influence of Western civilization, as represented by Napoleon's invasion of Egypt, that a resurgence in Arabic literature and culture occurred.

However, this perspective is not without its criticisms. Some scholars argue that this narrative of a stagnant and ossified Arabic culture under Ottoman rule is a product of Orientalism, which is the tendency to view the cultures and societies of the Middle East and North Africa as exotic, backward, and in need of rescue by the West. These scholars argue that the Ottoman Empire was a diverse and dynamic society, and that Arabic literature and culture were not in a state of decline.

Furthermore, the idea of a "Arabic Renaissance" or "Nahda" is not a simple matter and it's not only as a result of the influence of Western civilization, but also a product of internal factors, such as the emergence of a new urban middle class, the growth of printing and publishing, and the increased availability of education.

Additionally, The Ottoman Empire had a long history of literary and cultural achievements in the Arabic language, and there was a vibrant tradition of poetry, prose, and scholarship that existed alongside the dominant Turkish language culture of the court.

In conclusion, the state of Arabic literature and culture during the Ottoman Empire is a complex issue, and one that cannot be reduced to a simple narrative of decline and rescue by Western civilization. It's important to consider the multiple perspectives and factors that contributed to the development of Arabic literature and culture during this period.